大学英语自学教程(上)

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大学英语自学教程(上)

16-A. Heart Disease: Treat or Prevent? One of the greatest killers in the Western world is heart disease. The death rate from the disease has been increasing at an alarming speed for the past thirty years. Today in Britain, for example, about four hundred people a day die of heart disease. Western healthcare systems are spending huge sums of money on the surgical treatment of the disease.

This emphasis on treatment is clearly associated with the technological advances that have taken place in the past ten to fifteen years. In this time, modern technology has enabled doctors to develop new surgical techniques and procedures. Many opeations that were considered impossible a few years ago are now performed every day in U.S. hospitals. The result has been a rapid increase in heart surgery.

Although there is no doubt that a large number of people benefit from heart surgery, critics of our health-care systems point out that the emphasis on the surgical treatment of the disease has three clear disadvantages. First, it attracts interest and financial resources away from the question of prevention. Second, it causes the costs of general hospital care to rise. After hospitals buy the expensive equipment that is necessary for modern heart surgery, they must try to recover the money they have spent. To do this, they raise costs for all their patients, not just those patients whose treatment requires the equipment. The third disadvantage is that doctors are encouraged to perform surgery -- even on patients for whom an operation is not at all necessary -- because the equipment and surgical expertise is available. A federal government office recently said that major heart surgery was often per-formed even though its chances of success were low. In one type of heart surgery, for example, only 15 percent of patients benefited from the surgery.

In the recent past, medical researchers have begun to emphasize the fact that heart disease is associated with stress, smoking and a lack of exercise, and we can often reduce the risk of heart disease by paying more attention to these factors.

More and more people are realizing that there is a connection between

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heart disease and the way they live. As a result of this new awareness, attitudes toward health are changing. In the past, people tended to think that it was sufficient for good health to have a good doctor who could be relied on to know exactly what to do when they became ill. Now they are realizing that merely receiving the best treatment for illness or injury is not enough. They are learning that they must take more responsibility for their own health. Today many people are changing their dietary habits and eating food with less fat and cholesterol. Many are paying more attention to reducing stress in their lives. The number of smokers in the United States is now far below the level of twenty years ago as many people succeed in breaking the habit and as fewer people take it up. More and more people are aware of the benefits of regular exercise like walking, running, or swimming; some have begun to walk or ride bicycles to work instead of driving. Millions have become members of health clubs and have made health clubs one of the fastest growing businesses in the United States today. And now the beneficial effects of these changing attitudes and behaviors are beginning to appear: an encouraging decrease in deaths from heart disease.

16-B. Dieting Four Way to Health Almost everyone considers going on a diet sometime in his or her life. All, regardless of sex and age, have something in common -- losing weight and losing it fast.

Though their common aim may seem basically good, they probably do not realize that misguided dieting can do more harm than good to their health. Going on too strict a diet can destroy the balance of chemicals in the human body. This happens because when the body is suddenly given much less food than usual, it feels as though it is being attacked and tries hard to protect itself by saving energy. It does this by slowing down metabolism, the process by which the food we eat is converted into energy. As energy is supplied to the body at a slower and slower rate, dieters gradually become so weak that they can do nothing. They soon lose interest in everything going on about them, and their resistance to illness becomes so low that they are easily attacked by one illness after another.

Most of those who diet know that foods like rice, bread, potatoes, cakes, sweets, fruits and some vegetables contain carbohydrates, and so can make one fat. What they do not realize, however, is that carbohydrates are our bodies’ main source of energy, and that these foods also contain components essential

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for the composition of substances that are needed to keep the body healthy. As a result, they try to avoid eating these foods, and consequently, they become weaker and less healthy. They begin to have difficulty sleeping properly and start to suffer from radical mood changes. In more serious cases, they even begin to show signs of mental illness.

1t is strange enough that most strict diets recommend artificial sweeteners to take the place of sugar and other natural sweeteners. In fact, such artificial sweeteners actually increase one’s appetite and lead to one’s eating even more than usual.

Of course, the fact that misguided forms of dieting result in so many problems does not mean that no dieting is safe or all dieting is harmful to the health. Proper dieting can not only help a person lose ugly excess fat, but can also help him or her to keep it off and to lead a more active, happier and healthier life.

You might ask just what a proper diet is. Well, simply expressed, a proper healthy diet is one that is well-balanced, or, in other words, one that includes enough but not too many of the kinds of foods that provide the body with the nutrients that it needs to function properly. The most important of these nutrients are the macronutrients: proteins, carbohydrates and fats. The body needs fairly large amounts of proteins and carbohydrates for building material and energy. Meat, fish, eggs, milk, cream, and nuts all contain proteins and foods like rice, bread, potatoes, etc. contain carbohydrates. The body needs fat to keep it from the cold and to provide a protective layer for the organs, but only in small quantities.

Vitamins and minerals such as iron, calcium, are another group of essential nutrients, though the body does not need as great a quantity of these as it does the macronutrients - proteins, carbohydrates and fats.

There are two types of vitamins, water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C and the B-group vitamins do not stay in the body long and so foods containing these vitamins need to be taken rather often. On the other hand, the fat-soluble vitamins, vitamins A, D, E and K stay in the body for long periods of time and so there is no need to take foods containing them so often.

One way of getting enough nutrients while keeping one’s weight down is to take substitutes for foods which contain too much fat. For example, instead of regular milk, one can take skimmed milk, which contains as many proteins and

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minerals as regular milk but has had the fat removed. In the same way, vegetable oil can be used for cooking instead of animal oil.

17-A. Panic and Its Effects

One afternoon while she was preparing dinner in her kitchen, Anne Peters, a 32-year-old American housewife, suddenly had severe pains in her chest accompanied by shortness of breath. Frightened by the thought that she was having a heart attack, Anne screamed for help. Her husband immediately rushed Anne to a nearby hospital where her pains were diagnosed as having been caused by panic, and not a heart attack.

More and more Americans nowadays are having panic attacks like the one experienced by Anne Peters. Benjamin Crocker, a psychologist at the University of Southern California, reveal that as many as ten million adult Americans have already experienced or will experience at least one panic attack in their lifetime. Moreover, studies conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health in the United States disclose that approximately 1.2 million adult individuals are currently suffering from severe and recurrent panic attacks.

These attacks may last for only a few minutes; some, however, continue for several hours. The symptoms of panic attacks bear such remarkable similarity to those of heart attacks that many victims believe that they are indeed having a heart attack.

Panic attack victims show the following symptoms: they often become easily frightened or feel uneasy in situations where people normally would not be afraid; they suffer shortness of breath, experience chest pains, a quick heartbeat, sudden fits of trembling, a feeling that persons and things around them are not real; and most of all, a fear of dying or going crazy, A person seized by a panic attack may show all or as few as four of these symptoms.

There has been a lot of explanations as to the causes of panic attacks. Many claim that psychological stress could be a logical cause, but as yet, no evidence has been found to support this theory. However, studies show that more women than men experience panic attacks and people who drink a lot as well as those who use drugs are more likely to suffer attacks.

It is reported that there are at least three signs that indicate a per-son is

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suffering from a panic attack rather than a heart attack. The first is age. People between the ages of 20 and 30 are more often victims of panic attacks. The second is sex. More women suffer from recurrent panic attacks than men. The third is the multiplicity of symptoms. A panic attack victim usually suffers at least four of the previously mentioned symptoms, while a heart attack victim often experiences only pain and shortness of breath.

It is generally agreed that a panic attack does not directly endanger a person's life. All the same, it can unnecessarily disrupt a person's life by making him or her so afraid of having a panic attack in a public place that he or she may refuse to leave home and may eventually become isolated from the rest of society. Dr. Crocker’s advice to any person who thinks he is suffering from a panic attack is to consult a doctor for a medical examination to rule out the possibilities of physical illness first. Once it has been confirmed that he or she is, in fact, suffering from a panic attack, the victim should seek psychological and medical help.

17-B. Sleepwalking ?Fact or Fancy? There is an endless supply of stories about sleepwalkers. Persons have been said to climb on roofs, solve mathematical problems, compose music, walk through windows, and commit murder in their sleep.

In Revere, Massachusetts, a hundred policemen searched for a lost boy who left his home in his sleep and woke up five hours later on a strange sofa in a strange living room, with no idea how he had got there.

At the University of Iowa, a student was reported to have the habit of getting up in the middle of the night and walking three-quarters of a mile to the Iowa River. He would take a swim and then go back to his room to bed. An expert on sleep in America claims that he has never seen a sleepwalker. He is said to know more about sleep than any other living man, and during the last thirty-five years has lost a lot of sleep watching people sleep. Says he, \"of course, I know that there are sleepwalkers because I have read about them in the newspapers. But none of my sleepers ever walked, and if I were to advertise for sleepwalkers for an experiment, I doubt that I’d get many takers. \"

Sleepwalking, nevertheless, is a scientific reality. It is one of those strange phenomena that sometimes border on the fantastic. What is certain about

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sleepwalking is that it is a symptom of emotional disturbance, and that the only way to cure it is to remove the worries and anxieties that cause it. Doctors say that sleepwalking is much more common than is generally supposed. Many sleepwalkers do not seek help and so are never put on record, which means that an accurate count can never be made.

The question is: Is the sleepwalker actually awake or asleep? Scientists have decided that he is about half-and-half. Dr. Zelda Teplitz, who made a ten-year study of the subject, says, \"The sleepwalker is awake in the muscular area, partially asleep in the sensory area.” In other words, a person can walk in his sleep, move around, and do other things, but he does not think about what he is doing.

What are the chances of a sleepwalker committing a murder or doing something else extraordinary in his sleep? Dr. Teplitz says, \"Most people have such great inhibitions against murder or violence that they would awaken if someone didn't wake them up.\" In general, authorities on sleepwalking agree with her. They think that people will not do anything in their sleep that is against their own moral standard. As for the publicized cases, Dr. Teplitz points out, \"Sleepwalking itself is dramatic... sleepwalkers can always find an audience. I think that some of their tall tales get exaggerated in the telling.” In her own records of case histories, there is not one sleepwalker who ever got beyond his own front door.

To protect themselves, some sleepwalkers have been known to tie themselves in bed, lock their doors, hide the keys, bolt the window, and take all sorts of measures to wake themselves if they should get out of bed. Curiously enough, they have an unusual way of avoiding their own traps when they sleepwalk, so none of their tricks seem to work very well. Some sleepwalkers talk in their sleep loudly enough to wake someone else in the family who can then shake them back to their senses.

Children who walk in their sleep usually outgrow the habit. In many adults, too, the condition is more or less temporary. If it happens often, however, the sleepwalker should seek help. Although sleepwalking itself is nothing to become alarmed about, the problems that cause the sleepwalking may be very serious.

18-A. Why Are Maps Drawn with North at the Top? Now it is hard to visualize a map that does not feature north at the top, but

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this was not always so.

The oldest known map in the accepted sense of the word was drawn about 3, 800 BC, and represents the river Euphrates flowing through northern Mesopotamia, Iraq. This, and others that followed it, were little more than rough sketches of localized features; it was not until many centuries later that the ancient Greeks placed the science of map-making on a sound footing.

At the forefront of the pioneers in the field was the Greek mathematician and philosopher Claudius Ptolemaeus (c. AD 90 ?168), more popularly known to history as Ptolemy. The last great scientist of the classical period, he was the first to draw a map that was based on all available knowledge, rather than guess or imagination. Earlier, the Bahylonians had attempted to map the world, but they presented it in the form of a flattened disc rather than a sphere, which was the form adopted by Ptolemy.

Given the state of knowledge of those times, he got things wrong; for example, his estimate of China and the Atlantic Ocean was far from being accurate. Nevertheless, it was a useful effort, and the map remained a work of reference for over a thousand years. In fact, Christopher Columbus used a version of it when he set sail in search of the New World - which caused him some navigational problems, since Ptolemy had calculated wrongly the size of the Atlantic and was unaware that the Pacific Ocean existed.

The really important thing about Ptolemy's map was that north was at the top. The reason for this was that he decided to orientate the map in the direction of the Vole Star since Polaris was the immovable guiding light in which the voyagers of that era placed their trust.

North at the top remained the accepted arrangement until the early Middle Ages, when the Church began to interfere seriously with the advance of science. In accordance with the orders of the Church, maps were still produced in accordance with Ptolemy's principles ?but now Jerusalem was the central feature, as it was held to be the center of the Christian faith, and east was moved to the top.

These maps are often called \"T\" Maps because they show only three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa - separated by the \"T\" formed by the Mediterranean Sea and the River Nile. From a navigational point of view, they were almost useless.

More accurate maps began to appear in the 14th century, with the spread of

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trade and increasing reliance on the compass. Once again, north assumed its rightful place at the top of maps.

18-B. You Have a Choice Two trains are traveling side by side and at the same speed along parallel tracks. We are seated in one of the trains, and with us we have a special speedometer that measures their relative speech. Since the trains are traveling at the same speed, their relative speed is zero; the speedometer therefore reads \"0.\" Suddenly the other train seems to start pulling ahead of ours. The speedometer shows a reading of 10 miles per hour. The other train has apparently increased its speed. Hut can we he absolutely certain of this increase? If your answer is yes, you are wrong. You are wrong because all that we know is that the relative speed between the two trains changed from 0 mph to 10 mph. Nothing more. This change could have been brought about in one of two ways:

1. The other train increased its speed. 2. Our train decreased its speed.

There are thus two possible explanations to account for the change in speed, but we don't know which one is right. Furthermore, regardless of which explanation we choose, the end result will he the same: the other train will arrive at the station first. So it makes no difference whether we say that the other train increased its speed or that our train decreased its speed.

Since both explanations lead to the same result, you can choose either one. Whenever two things are relative, you can choose either one of them. The converse is also true: whenever you have a choice between two things that are equally possible, then the things are relative.

There is no reason, except convenience, for choosing one explanation over the other. The relative speed between the trains remains the same, 10 mph; and the end result will be the same.

Now let抯 suppose that both trains are at the railroad station loading and unloading passengers and baggage. A half-hour passes. As we look at the other train through our window, we see that our train seems to start moving, smoothly and slowly. For a minute or so, our train seems to travel at a uniform speed. Our special speedometer shows that the relative speed between the two trains is 20

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mph. But as we look out our window, we suddenly see the last coach of the other train disappear from sight and notice the motionless station behind it. So we are not moving after all. The other train has been moving!

This peculiar and often frustrating experience is an effect of relative motion. At the train station we cannot tell whether it was our train that changed its speed from 0 mph to 20 mph or whether it was the other train that changed its speed from 0 mph to 20 mph. Only after the other train pulled out of the station could we see that it, and not our train, was moving.

Now let us again raise the question that was raised at the beginning of this article: can we be absolutely certain that the other train did indeed increase its speed, and in this case pull out of the station?

If your answer is yes, then you are wrong again. All we can be certain of is that the relative speed between the two trains changed.

These examples illustrate an important principle in the special theory of relativity. If A appears to be moving at a steady speed relative to B, we cannot know for sure if it is A that is really moving. Perhaps A is standing still, and B is moving. Or perhaps both are moving. According to relativity, there is no experiment that can be devised to solve the problem. As there is no way of deciding which of the two objects is moving, we can choose either one as the moving object. The reason is that their motion is relative, and relativity, as we have seen, means that we have a choice.

This principle - that if two objects are in uniform motion relative to each other, it is impossible to decide which one is moving and which one is at rest - applies to all objects moving uniformly in a straight line through the universe. In relativity you’ll find that whenever you have a choice among things that are equally possible, you are dealing with relative things. For example, time, which is measured with clocks and watches, is relative because it can be shown that there is more than one system of time. All systems of time are equally possible and you can choose any system you wish.

19-A. Animals at Risk: Who Cares?

An animal species becomes extinct when it fails to produce enough young

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in each generation to keep pace with the death-rate. We can tell from fossil evidence in rocks that many living species have become extinct over the millions of years since life began. It is a natural process and extinction is the fate of any animal that has specialized too far to change when its environment changes, or has to compete with a better-adapted and more powerful animal. Because of remarkable technical developments during the past few centuries, man has destroyed or nearly destroyed some species by killing them at such a rate that they couldn't produce enough offspring, or by completely changing their natural environment at surprising speed.

A number of examples can be given of the way in which natural environments are being rapidly changed - Amazonia, for instance. There is every likelihood that many species of animals will be made extinct because of these and similar clearances of natural vegetation. Large numbers of animals have been hunted and killed for food. The North American buffalo is a case of the near-extinction of a species through hunting. Often the numbers are so great the hunters may not realize the danger. But even when the danger is widely publicized, the financial rewards for the hunters may be so great that they choose to ignore the threat to the species. Attitudes like this have led to hunters killing animals for furs, for ivory or merely for ornaments. A slight variation on this is when tourists hunt animals for trophies. Magnificent creatures such as lions and tigers have been hunted out of existence in some parts of the world. It is important to realise, though, that animals are sometimes killed out of fear. Big cats are killed in this way. And animals are sometimes killed out of a wish to reduce numbers to help the species to survive. The killing of the Canadian seals is claimed to be for this purpose, and the use of their skins for furs is only a by-product.

Many people are concerned about animals and wildlife conservation. One way to preserve species under threat of extinction - whatever the cause - is to remove them to zoos and parks and breed them there. There is always the chance that enough offspring will be born to return them one day to their natural environment - provided it still exists, and that hunters don't kill them again! Another method is to protect the animals in their natural environment by creating wildlife reserves and parks and using game wardens to look after them. But the parks are large, the wardens few and the determination of hunters very great. Early in 1980 wardens and hunters clashed in East Africa. The hunters were armed with modern weapons and several people were killed.

There is great pleasure in watching wildlife in natural or near-natural

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environments, and tourism can add to the income of countries. The animals are still resources - but in a very different form.

19-B. The Killer Smogs On the night of December 1, 1930, a dense fog moved over the Meuse Valley, in Belgium. Many factories in the valley poured smoke and fumes into the foggy air. This created a dark smog of smoke and fog combined. People in the valley began to cough and strain for breath. The smog remained for four days. During that time, thou-sands of people became ill. The hospitals were filled with patients. Sixty people died. Most of them were older persons with heart and lung problems. Finally, a heavy rain washed away the smog. Scientists studied the causes of the disaster. They concluded that the illnesses and deaths were caused by chemicals in the smog.

The first reported event of this kind in the United States happened in Donora, a factory town in a valley near Pittsburgh. In 1948, a killer smog made half of the population sick, there were 17 deaths. Again, older people with lung or heart diseases were hit hardest.

London, England, has always been known for its \"black fags.\" In the winter of 1952, a milky white fog rolled into the city. It soon turned into black smog as the smoke of the city poured into the air. It was so hard to see that people had to walk in front of the buses to guide them. In this way, the most serious air pollution disaster in history began. When it was over, more than 4,000 people had been killed by the thick black smog.

New York City has had several London-type smogs since 1950. Each time, there were from 100 to 400 deaths caused by the smog. Although these smogs were not as deadly as London’s, New York City has the worst: air pollution problem in the United States.

In all the killer smogs, factories and homes poured smoke and fumes into the air from the furnaces. The chemical fumes combined witty the water droplets in the fog to form harmful substances. These substances caused the illness of those who breathed the polluted air.

Usually, such harmful fumes rise into the upper air and are blown away by the wind. Hut sometimes there is an unusual weather condition called a temperature inversion. A layer of cold air remains near the ground as smoke and

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fumes pour into it. This is covered by an upper layer of warm air that acts like a lid. It prevents the polluted cooler air from rising. The harmful fumes pile up and make people ill. The smog may bc so thick that airports are closed and chains of collisions occur on the highways.

Another type of smog occurs in Los Angeles. Here the weather may he clear and sunny. But stinging eyes and dry coughs show that harmful chemicals fill the air. The smog is due to invisible gases, mostly from automobile exhaust. Because these chemicals are changed by the sun high up in the air, Los Angeles smog is called photochemical smog. It contains automobile exhaust fumes and nitrogen oxides changed by the sun's rays. Added to these are sulfur dioxide and other fumes from factories and oil refineries. Photochemical smog is found in many large cities all over the world.

Killer smogs don't happen very often, fortunately. Hut in many large cities, a combination of automobile exhaust fumes, home furnace smoke, and factory waste gases pours into the air. This may also happen in the suburbs, or out in the country, where large factories have been built. A number of harmful substances have been found in the air there. When these substances are breathed in day after day, the health of the population is affected.

20-A. You Can’t Do It Because It Hurts Nobody Who do you think breaks the law in our society? If you believe that only tough guys commit crimes, you may have to think again. Answer the following questions honestly, Has anyone you know ever driven drunk? Can you think of a friend who has used drugs? Are you aware that your parents may not always tell the truth when they go through customs? Won't some of your friends admit that they have stolen an item from a store? Have any of your friends ever copied a CD onto a tape for someone else?

In case you did not know, all of these acts are against the law. Now, among the people you know, how many have never broken the law? Does that mean that most members of our society should go to jail? Unlike in the movies, we can’t divide the world into bad guys and model citizens. Real life is much more complex. In the same way that diseases range from the common cold to fatal forms of cancer, crimes vary in degree. For example, smoking in an elevator will inconvenience people, but much less than threatening them with a gun.

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In addition to breaking the law themselves, people tolerate various levels of crime. Why are we tolerant of some crimes? It may be that, by seeing others do something, we accept it more easily. We may even start committing that crime ourselves. For instance, most people will find it easier to speed on a highway when everybody else is driving over the speed limit. When people celebrate a sports championship, if they see someone breaking store windows, they might start breaking windows themselves or even steal from the store. So the people around us influence how much law-breaking we can tolerate.

We must also wonder whether seeing violence on television or reading about it in the newspapers every day makes us tolerate crime more than we should. We become used to seeing blood on the news on television, or in full color in newspapers and magazines. Because we see thousands of dead people on TV, maybe we just try to ignore the situation behind the violence.

If so many citizens tolerate violence and crime, or even commit crimes themselves, it may simply be because of the human mind. Our minds may not care about specific laws. Instead, our minds may have a system of values that usually prevents us from hurting other people to improve our own lives. Yet, when it comes to respecting the rights of a mass of anonymous individuals, we might not be so responsible. While most people would not steal a wallet containing $50, they may not mind cheating on taxes, because cheating on taxes does not hurt any one person. It hurts society, but \"society\" remains an abstract idea that is not as real as a neighbor or a friend's friend. Perhaps this is why someone who robs a few dollars by force from a corner store will often end up with a longer jail term than a fraud artist who swindles thousands of dollars: threatening the life of an individual is not acceptable in our society.

When we look at the questions in the first paragraph and realize that many people have misconceptions about law-breaking, we could think it is surprising that only about 10% of Canadians have a criminal record. How could we improve the level of honesty in our society? Would a larger police force keep everyone honest? Would severe laws help make our society better? Probably not. The police would never be able to keep an eye on everyone, and people would still find ways to bend new laws. Honesty will have to come from social pressure: in the family, at school, on the job, each and every one of us can encourage honesty by showing which behaviors are unacceptable. Teaching respect should become everyone’s responsibility.

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20-B. Marriage in Iran and America: A Study in Contrasts Though marriage is practiced in almost all countries of the world, the customs are quite different from one culture to another. It is interesting for me to compare the customs of marriage in the United States with those in my country. I've lived in the U.S. for four years now, but I'm still not comfortable with the customs here. In fact, what seems strange to me is that courting or dating is not always for the purpose of finding a husband or wife. Some people seem to do it as a hobby.

Here in the United States, I have noticed that courting is begun by the young couple themselves, and they seem to have a lot of freedom to decide and do what they want. Both young men and women date a number of different people. They do it without the knowledge or help of their parents. In fact, I have known several friends who got married without even telling their parents or other family members.

At the actual wedding ceremony, the father of the bride symbolically gives his daughter to the groom. It's only a custom, I think, because the bride and groom already know each other quite well. The bride and groom stand together in front of the religious leader or government official to be married. The official reads from a short prepared speech and then asks both the man and woman if they are willing to he married to the other. If they both say \"yes,\" and nobody attending the wedding stands up to object, they are declared \"man and wife.” It is interesting that the two families are asked if there are any objections right during the ceremony. Perhaps it is because the family members are not as involved in the wedding preparations as they are in Iran.

Marriage is different in a number of ways in my country. In Iran, courting is more serious, and is performed strictly for the purpose of marriage It is definitely not a part of the fun-filled years of growing up like it is here in America. It is the mother of the young man who initiates the process by visiting the home of a potential bride. She goes to inspect the girl, and discover the position and wealth of the girl’s family. If she is pleased, then she will return another day with her son. If her son is also pleased, then the two families get together to talk about the dowry, the wedding ceremony, who they will hire to perform the marriage and other matters.

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The actual marriage ceremony is quite different, however, from the American wedding ceremonies I have sewn. The bride, dressy in white, with a veil over her face, sits in a room alone. She sits on a special piece of silk which is surrounded on two sides by very long pieces of flat bread. Two mullahs stand outside the door to this room reading from the Koran. Twice the bride must remain silent to the questions of the mullahs. The groom's mother then presents a gift of gold to show that her side of the family is serious. The bride then responds to the mullahs in much the same manner as do Americans when they say \"I do.\" The groom is allowed to go into the bride's room while the mullahs take care of the official marriage papers.

One more difference between the marriage customs of the United States and my country is that the bride does not immediately go to the home of her new husband. For several months, she continues to stay at her own home preparing her dowry and receiving instructions from her mother on how to be a good wife and mother. After a few months, the groom and his relatives come for the bride and take her to his home along with the dowry.

Though I can certainly see the advantages of the freedom that is given to American youths to choose whom they will marry and when, I think I still prefer the customs of my home country. I suppose that’s because there is not so much guessing and uncertainty.

21-A. The Language of Uncertainty Uncertainty spreads through our lives so thoroughly that it dominates our language. Our everyday speech is made up in large part of word like probably, many, soon, great, little. What do these words mean? \"Atomic war,\" declared a recent editorial in the London Times, \"is likely to destroy forever the nation that wages it. How exactly are we to understand the word likely? Lacking any standard for estimating the probability, we are left with the judgment of the editorial writer.

Such verbal imprecision is not necessarily to be criticised. Indeed, it has a value just because it allows us to express judgments when a precise quantitative statement is out of the question.

The language of uncertainty has three main categories: (1)words such as probably, possibly, surely, which denote a single subjective probability and are

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potentially quantifiable; (2)words like many, of-ten, goon, which are also quantifiable but denote not so much a condition of uncertainty as a quantity imprecisely known; (3)words like fat, rich, drunk, which can not be reduced to any accepted number because they are given different values by different people.

We have been trying to pin down by experiments what people mean by these expressions in specific contexts, and how the meanings change with age. For instance, a subject is told \"There are many trees in the park” and is asked to say what number the word many mean to him. Or a child is invited to take \"some\" sweets from a bowl and we then count how many he has taken. We compare the number he takes when he is alone with the number when one or more other children are present and are to take some sweets after him, or with the number he takes when told to give \"some” sweets to another child.

First, we find that the number depends, of course, on the items involved. To most people some friends means about five, while .some trees means about twenty. However, unrelated areas sometimes show parallel values. For instance, the language of probability seems to mean about the same thing in predictions about the weather and about politics: the expression is certain to (rain, or be elected) signifies to the average person about a 70 per cent chance; is likely to, about a 60 per cent chance; probably will, about 55 per cent.

Secondly, the size of the population of items influences the value assigned to an expression. Thus, if we. tell a subject to take \"a few\" or \"a lot of\" glass bald from a box, he will take more if the box contains a large number of glass balls than if it has a small number. Hut not prolix>rtionately more: if we increase the number of glass balls eight times, the subject takes only half as large a percentage of the total.

Thirdly, there is a marked change with age. Among children between six and fourteen years old, the older the child, the fewer glass balls he will take. But the difference between a lot and a few widens with age. This age effect is so consistent that it might be used as a test of intelligence. In place of a long test we could merely ask the subject to give numerical values to expressions such as nearly always and very rarely in a given context, and then measure his intelligence by the ratio of the number for nearly always to the one for very rarely. We have found that this ration increases systematically from about 2 to 1 for a child of seven to about 20 to 1 for a person twenty-five years old,

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21-B. It Never Rains but It Pours! An hour before midnight is worth two after or so my mother used to tell me as I sat down to breakfast after a particularly late night. Hut is it really true that sleep before 12 p. m. is twice as good for you as sleep after that hour? At the time, like most young people, I regarded this proverb as an old wive’s tale with no relevance to my own life. I mean, an hour is an hour... it's 60 minutes, a. m. or p. m. However, now older and wiser, I remember my mother's words as t scramble into bed at 11 o'clock. I am now a firm believer in the value of getting at least one hour's sleep before midnight!

Advice about how to live a healthy life is one example of the type of received wisdom which is condensed and passed on to the next generation in the form of proverbs. Proverbs also serve to express general truths in a short and colourful way, for example, There's no smoke without fire, meaning that there is generally some truth in even the wildest rumours.

Another type of proverb acts as a reminder of the correct way to behave, for example, Don ' t wash your dirty linen in public. This means don't discuss personal or family problems in front of strangers or in public. Other proverbs are offered to people as means of comfort in times of trouble, for example, It's no use crying over spilt milk. This proverb advises that it really is a waste of time to weep over mistakes that have already been made. instead, it is much better to Make the best of a bad job - to do your best whatever the situation.

Some English proverbs are native to Britain, for example, It never rains but it pours, a reference to the joys of the British weather! This proverb means that when one thing goes wrong, many other things go wrong as well. Another home-grown proverb is Every dog is allowed one bite. This proverb is based on an old English law dating back to the 17th century. The law said that the first time a dog bit somebody, its owner did not have to pay compensation o the victim because one bite did not prove that the dog was vicious. Hence the idea carried in the proverb, that everyone should be allowed to make a mistake without being punished for it.

Other proverbs have come into the language from Latin or Greek. Lucretius, a classical Roman author, created the proverb One man's meat is another man's poison, meaning that what is good for one person can be harmful to another. And

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the proverb Let sleeping dogs lie meaning don't cause trouble when it can be avoided, came into English from the French in the 14th century.

As Britain came into contact with other countries and cultures, English became enriched with the words and wisdom of different languages. From the Chinese, we borrowed the colourful proverb He who rides a tiger is afraid to dismount, meaning that if you start on a dangerous enterprise, it is often easier to carry it through to the end than to stop halfway.

Some proverbs have been in the language for 1, 000 years, for example, A friend in need is a friend indeed. The message here is that someone who stays with you and helps you in times of trouble, rather than turning their back, is a true friend. Other proverb, however, are much more recent, and reflect changes in the way that we live.

From the United States come the following two pieces of new wisdom, Garbage in - garbage out, from the computer world, reminds people that computers are only as good as their programs. From big business we have There's no such thing as a free lunch, meaning nothing is free. If someone buys you lunch, they will expect a favour in return.

Some English people are reluctant to use proverbs in their everyday conversation because they see them as vehicles of too much used wisdom. Nevertheless, proverbs are still quite common in both written and spoken English and continue to provide a homely commentary on life and a reminder that the wisdom of our ancestors may still be useful to us today.

22-A. Current Attitudes toward Physical Fitness Recently we were told by a student that setting aside time for improving his physical fitness would be a total misuse of his working hours. He assured us that he would be no better served by a fitness program than by learning to play bridge. College and his preparation for a career were his only priorities. This student has seen being physically fit as an end rather than the means we know it to be. His opinion is one of the many feelings, pro or con, that people hold about their personal involvement in a physical fitness program. Many people, including college students of all ages, spend little time in pursuit of physical fitness. Certainly some of these individuals may have

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physical limitations that make activity extremely difficult, and others are engaged in time-consuming activities that until finished do not permit opportunities for recreation. However, what about the majority who could do much more but do so little? Does one of the following statements sound like you?

“I know it's important, but I just don't have time right now.

“I'm already fit, and with my schedule, I'll have no difficulty staying that way.

“I should do more than I do, but I just don’t have facilities and I don't get much support from others.

“Exercise makes me feel terrible. Even when I shower, I get to my next class wet, and probably smelling like a locker room.

Unlike these people who have made no commitment to fitness, you may have made a commitment to a physical fitness program that might be rather narrow in scope. If one of the following comments fits you, perhaps you are failing to see the broader values of maintaining a high level of physical fitness.

“Everyone in the dorm runs at night. That's why I run.”

“For every 3,500 calories I can ‘burn’ during exercise, I' 11 lose a pound of fat. I have only 10 pounds more to drop before Christmas. ”

“This weekend will be cool and nice. Saturday looks like a good day for a personal record.

“Some would say I have a fear of death. Heck, I just want to live a long time.

If you see your own attitude represented by one of these comments, might you be shortsighted in your reason for valuing fitness? We would suggest that you reexamine your approach to fitness and its ability to positively influence other aspects of your life. Ask yourself, \"What could I achieve if I were really in top physical condition?” Because fitness levels are easily observed and can be measured, you can quickly start to see the emerging person you are capable of becoming. Almost daily you can see progress and accomplishment. Keep in mind, however, that all people are different and some may progress faster than others. In the final analysis, we think that although fitness will not guarantee that you will live longer, it can help you enjoy the years you do live.

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22-B. People and Colors One person chooses a bright red car, but another prefers a dark green. One family paints the living room a sunny yellow, but another family uses pure white. One child wants a bright orange ball, but another wants a light blue one. Psychologists and businessmen think these differences are important.

In general, people talk about two groups of colors: warm colors and cool colors. Researchers think that there are also two groups of people: people who prefer warm colors and people who prefer cool colors.

The warm colors are red, orange, and yellow. Where there are warm colors and a lot of light, people usually want to be active. People think that red, for example, is exciting. Sociable people, those who like to be with others, like red. The cool colors are green, blue, and violet. These colors, unlike warm colors, are relaxing. Where there are cool colors, people are usually quiet. People who like to spend time alone often prefer blue.

Red may be exciting, but one researcher says that time seems to pass more slowly in a room with warm colors than in a room with cool colors. He suggests that a warm color, such as red or orange, is a good color for a living room or restaurant. People who are relaxing or eating, do not want time to pass quickly. Cool colors are better for offices or factories if the people who are working there want time to pass quickly.

Researchers do not know why people think some colors are warm and other colors are cool. However, almost everyone agrees that red, orange, and yellow are warm and that green, blue, and violet are cool. Perhaps warm colors remind people of warm days and the cool colors remind them of cool days. Because in the north the sun is low during winter, the sunlight appears quite blue. Because the sun is higher during summer, the hot summer sunlight appears yellow. People associate colors with different objects, feelings, and holidays. Red, for example, is the color of fire, heat, blood, and life. People say red is an exciting and active color. They associate red with a strong feeling like anger. Red is used for signs of danger, such as STOP signs and fire engines. The holiday which is associated with red is Valentine’s Day. On February 14, Americans send red hearts to people they love.

Orange is the bright, warm color of leaves in autumn. People say orange is a lively, energetic color. They associate orange with happiness. The holidays

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which are associated with orange are Halloween in October and Thanksgiving Day in November. On October 31 many Americans put large orange pumpkins in their windows for Halloween.

Yellow is the color of sunlight. People say it is a cheerful and lively color. They associate yellow, too, with happiness. Because it is bright, it is used for signs of caution.

Green is the cool color of grass in spring. People say it is a refreshing and relaxing color. Machines in factories are usually painted light green.

Blue is the color of the sky, water, and ice. Police and Navy uniforms are blue. When people are sad, they say “I feel blue.” They associate blue with feelings like unhappiness and fear.

Violet, or purple, is the deep, soft color of darkness or shadows. People consider violet a dignified color. They associate it with loneliness. On Easter

Sunday people decorate baskets with purple ribbons.

White is the color of snow. People describe white as a pure, clean color. They associate white with a bright clean feeling. Doctors and nurses normally wear white uniforms. On the other hand, black is the color of night. People wear black clothes at serious or formal ceremonies.

Businessmen know that people choose products by color. Businessmen want to manufacture products which are the colors people will buy. For example, an automobile manufacturer needs to know how many cars to paint red, how many green, and how many black. Good businessmen know that young people prefer different colors than old people do and men prefer different colors than women do.

Young children react to the color of an object before they react to its shape. They prefer the warm colors - red, yellow, and orange. When people grow older, they begin to react more to the shape of an object than to its color. The favorite color of adults of all countries is blue. Their second favorite color is red, and their third is green.

On the whole, women prefer brighter colors than men do. Almost everyone likes red, but women like yellow and green more than men do. Pink is usually considered a feminine color. Blue is usually considered a masculine color. As a result, people dress baby girls in pink and baby boys in blue. However, it is dangerous to generalize because taste changes. For example, years ago businessmen wore only white shirts; today they wear many different colors,

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including pink.

If two objects are the same except for color, they will look different. Color can make an object look nearer or farther, larger or smaller. A red object always looks nearer than a blue object. For example, red letters on a blue sign look as though they are in front of the sign. Bright objects look larger than dark objects. However, they are actually the same size. Large or fat people who want to look smaller or slimmer wear dark clothes. When they wear dark clothes, they look smaller and slimmer than they are.

In conclusion, color is very important to people. Warm and cool colors affect how people feel. People choose products by color. Moreover, color affects how an object looks. It is even possible that your favorite color tells a lot about you.

23-A. Non-verbal Communication If anyone asked you what were the main means of communication between people, what would you say? That isn’t a catch question. The answer is simple and obvious. It would almost certainly refer to means of communication that involve the use of words. Speakers and listeners-oral communication, and writers and readers-written communication. And you’d be quite right. There is, however, another form of communication which we all use most of the time, usually without knowing it. This is sometimes called body language. Its more technical name is non-verbal communication. Non-verbal, because it does not involve the use of words. NVC for short.

When someone is saying something with which he agrees, the average European will smile and nod approval. On the other hand, if you disagree with what they are saying, you may frown and shake your head. In this way you signal your reactions, and communicate them to the speaker without saying a word. I referred a moment ago to \"the average European”, because body language is very much tied to culture, and in order not to misunderstand, or not to be misunderstood, you must realize this. A smiling Chinese, for instance, may not be approving but somewhat embarrassed.

Quite a lot of work is now being done on the subject of NVC, which is obviously important, for instance, to managers, who have to deal every day with their staff, and have to understand what other people are feeling if they are to create good working conditions. Body language, or NVC signals, are sometimes

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categorised into five kinds: 1.body and facial gestures; 2.eye contact; 3.body contact or \"proximity\"; 4.clothing and physical appearance; and 5.the quality of speech. I expect you understood all those, except perhaps \"proximity.\" This simply means \"closeness\". In some cultures-and I am sure this is a cultural feature and not an individual one-it is quite normal for people to stand close together, or to more or less thrust their face into yours when they are talking to you. In other cultures, this is disliked; Americans, for instance, talk about invasion of their space.

Some signals are probably common to all of us. If a public speaker (like a professor, for example) is all the time fiddling with a pencil, or with his glasses, while he is talking to you, he is telling you quite clearly that he is nervous. A person who holds a hand over his mouth when he is talking is signalling that he is lacking in confidence. If you start wriggling in your chairs, looking secretly at your watches or yawning behind your hands, I shall soon get the message that I’m boring you. And so on. I'm sure you could make a whole list of such signals-and it might be fun if you did.

All the signals I have mentioned so far can be controlled. If you are aware that you are doing these things, you can stop. You can even learn to give false signals. Most public speakers are in fact nervous, but a good speaker learns to hide this by giving off signals of confidence. Other kinds of NVC are not so easy to control. Eye contact, for instance. Unless you are confessing intense love, you hardly ever look into someone else’s eyes for very long. If you try it, you’ll find they will soon away, probably in embarrassment.

I’ve already mentioned proximity, so just a brief word now about our last two categories, which concern the way people dress and the way they speak. These are both pretty obvious signals. People may dress casually and speak casually, which signals that they are relaxed. Or they can dress formally and speak formally, showing their tenseness. In fact, non-verbal communication can, as the saying goes, speak volumes.

23-B. Body Talk

Have you ever wondered why you sometimes take an almost immediate liking to a person you have just met? Or worried about why someone you were

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talking to suddenly became cool and distant? The chances are that it wasn’t anything that was said but something that happened: a gesture, a movement, a smile. Social scientists are now devoting considerable attention to \"non-verbal communication,” what happens when people get together, apart from their actual conversation.

Professor Erving Goffman of the University of Pennsylvania is involved in a continuing study of the way people behave in social interaction. He feels that gestures, movements and physical closeness have meaning which the words that the people are using do not carry.

The closeness of two people when talking, movement towards and away from each other, and the amount of eye contact all reveal some-thing about the nature of the relationship between the two individuals. We tend to be only subconsciously aware, if at all, of the various pat-terns and rituals of social behavior. We expect other people to act according to the same “rules” that we do, so much so that the manners and behavior of persons from another culture can be extremely confus1Ilg.

For example, North Americans tend to expect more physical distance between two speakers than do Latin Americans. Consequently, when the Latin American seems to be leaning too close, the North American complains of \"invasion of his space. \" The Latin American,

24-A. Savingthe Rainforests for Future Generations Rainforests are being cut and burned from Brazil to Indonesia at such a rate that they could well disappear from the earth's surface before the year 2050. They are being cleared for valuable timber and other resources to speed up the economic growth of the nations in which they are located. The most recent figures show that the area of rainforest destroyed last year alone was bigger than the size of Great Britain and Ireland.

If the present rate of deforestation is allowed to continue, the consequences for the earth will be great. We shall see a massive upsetting of ecosystems, very large increases in soil erosion, increases in flooding and in drought, changes in rainfall patterns and regional, quite possibly global, changes in climate. We shall also probably lose many rare plant and animal species.

According to many scientists, the burning of rainforests is also directly contributing to the so-called greenhouse effect. This effect, they say, is raising

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average temperatures and sea levels as the polar ice caps recede.

The rainforest is essential in other areas also. It is a medicine chest of unlimited potential. The US National Cancer Institute has identified 2,000 rainforest plants which could be beneficial in fighting cancer. In today's pharmaceutical market, 15 of the 125 drugs derived from plants were discovered in the rainforest.

Plant species are not the only forms of life threatened with extinction in the rainforest. Rare birds and animals that cannot be found anywhere else in the world have been disappearing at the rate of one a year since the turn of the century.

In the face of all these facts, it seems senseless for countries to continue destroying their rainforests. However, the problem is not so simple. The countries in which the rainforests are located are all quite poor and overpopulated. One of them, Brazil, has a population of 140 million, about half of whom are living in absolute poverty. The governments in these countries are usually also too weak to stop large companies and powerful individuals from destroying the rainforests. They have no money, so when the poor whom they cannot feed find work cutting down trees or burning forestland, the governments often have no choice but to turn a blind eye. Moreover, for many of these countries, the valuable timber and other resources found in the rainforests are also a very important source of foreign exchange, which they badly need to pay off their foreign debts and purchase foreign equipment and other goods. The only solution to the problem, then, seems to be for the richer countries of the world to help the countries where the rainforests are located. One way they could help would be by cancelling the international debts that countries like Brazil owe, while also working together with these countries to solve their other economic problems. At the same time, they could support programmes to teach the local people to regard the rainforests as gardens to be harvested, and not merely as places where the only way for them to make a living is by senselessly cutting down trees and burning.

Such prpgrammes could teach the local people how to select trees worth exporting and to cut only those trees down while leaving the rest, so that the basic make-up of the forest would not be disturbed. This would also mean that the environment needed for the survival of the many rare species of animals and plants, as well as of the Indian tribes that live in the rainforest, could be preserved. The local people could also be taught to earn more money by cutting

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the selected trees and making them into furniture on the spot. In addition, they could learn how to harvest other valuable natural materials that are now being wasted, and sell them overseas to earn foreign exchange for their countries. Last but not least, people in the richer countries of the world could also help save the rainforests by using wood-derived products such as paper more carefully and by recycling used paper products to help reduce the demand for newly cut wood.

24-B. Life on the Tundra Tundra is the name given to the low, marshy plains of Europe, Siberia, and North America that border on the Arctic Ocean. In Alaska, the vast, cold region known as the \"Northern Slope\" is part of the tundra. Nature sets harsh terms for survival in this land. Only those plants and animals that are adapted to the hostile environment can survive in it.

Long periods of darkness and bitter cold are the major threats to life on the tundra. At the Arctic Circle, the sun cannot be seen above the horizon in December. North of the Circle, the darkness lasts even longer. Over the northern reaches of the tundra, no sunlight can be seen at all for several months of the year.

The darkness is balanced, to some degree, by continuous daylight during the summer months. But even in the warmest month, the temperature only averages about 50 degrees F (10 degrees C). During the dark winter months the average temperature falls to - 16 degrees F ( -27 degrees C), and sometimes to ?40 degrees (C and F) and below.

Because of the intense cold, the subsoil of the tundra remains permanently frozen to a great depth. During the brief summer, a few feet (about a meter) of soil thaw at the surface. It is this thin layer of active soil that supports all living things on the tundra.

For nine months of the year, the tundra is a dark, seemingly lifeless wild land. Then in June, as if by magic, a never-setting summer sun gives birth to hundreds of species of arctic plants to cover the ground.

A plant that grows more than three feet (about a meter) is unusual on the

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tundra. There are no tall trees. The frozen subsoil prevents roots from growing deep enough to support them. By the end of August the breath of winter returns, and by mid-September the tundra is White again.

The animal life on the tundra is unusually rich for an environment that seems so harsh. Herds of arctic deer move from place to place in search of food. Bands of wolves follow them and hunt for the weak or sick ones.

Few birds actually live on the tundra. However, a variety of birds migrate to nest and feed during the summer. The wet, marshy lance produces a large number of insects that provide food for the smaller birds that, in turn, provide food for the arctic fox and the wolf.

The balance of nature is so delicate on the tundra that even minor disturbances may produce major changes in the environment. Any in-crease or decrease in the population of one species may affect all other species on the tundra. For example, if the number of wolves and foxes decreases, the food chain is upset. Without wolves, the number of grazing animals - like the deer - would increase. This increase would result in a food shortage, which would cause death to many smaller animals. A decrease in the number of these srnaller animals would in turn decrease the food supply for the arctic fox and the wolf. In this way, the entire food chain might be affected by a change in the number of a single species.

Until recently, the changing seasons on the tundra were seen only by a few Eskimo hunters and explorers. What would draw men and women to live in such a hostile land? The answer is oil.

In 1968, oil was discovered beneath the frozen soil on Alaska's Northern Slope. Now an 800-mile (about 1300 kilometers) pipeline has been built from Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Ocean to Valdes, a port on the south coast of Alaska. The pipeline carries the oil from the Northern Slope, across the tundra, to the port. From there, it is shipped to the rest of the United States.

Thousands of men and women were needed to build and maintain the pipeline. For the first time, large numbers of people were brought into contact with the tundra. Their presence and the presence of the pipeline they built represented a major change in the environment. How will the life cycles of the tundra be affected?

The survival of the United States depends on the ability to find new sources of energy. Oil from beneath the tundra is very important to the nations’

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development. But the survival of the tundra depends on how carefully people maintain the delicate balance of nature in this environment.

25-A. American Men Don't Cry American men don't cry because it is considered not characteristic of men to do so. Only women cry. Cry is a \"weakness\" characteristic of the female, and no American male wants to be identified with any-thing in the least weak or feminine. Crying, in our culture, is identified with childishness, with weakness and dependence. No one likes a crybaby, and we disapprove of crying even in children, discouraging it in them as early as possible. In a land so devoted to the pursuit of happiness as ours, crying really is rather un-American. Adults must learn not to cry in situations in which it is permissible for a child to cry. Women being the \"weaker\" and \"dependent” sex, it is only natural that they should cry in certain emotional situations. In women, crying is excusable. But in men, crying is a mark of weakness. So goes the American belief with regard to crying. \"A little man,\" we impress on our male children, \"never cries. Only girls and crybabies do.\" And so we condition males in America not to cry whenever they feel like doing so. It is not that American males are unable to cry because of some biological time clock within them which causes them to run down in that capacity as they grow older, but that they are trained not to cry. And so the \"little man\" controls his desire to cry and goes on doing so until he is unable to cry even when he wants to. Thus do we produce a trained incapacity in the American male to cry. And this is bad. Why is it bad? Because crying is a natural function of the human organism which is designed to restore the emotionally disequilibrated person to a state of equilibrium. The return of the disequilibrated organ systems of the body to steady states or dynamic stability is known as homeostasis. Crying serves a homeostatic function for the organism as a whole. Any interference with homeostasis is likely to be damaging to the organism. And there is good reason to believe that the American male抯 trained incapacity to cry is seriously damaging to him.

It is unnecessary to cry whenever one wants to cry, but one should he able to cry when one ought to cry - when one needs to cry. For to cry under certain emotionally disequilibrating conditions is necessary for the maintenance of health.

To be human is to weep. The human species is the only one in the whole of

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animated nature that sheds tears. The trained inability of any human being to weep is a lessening of his capacity to be human - a defect which usually goes deeper than the mere inability to cry. And this, among other things, is what American parents - with the best intentions in the world - have achieved for the American male. It is very sad. If we feel like it, let us all have a good cry - and clear our minds of those cobwebs of confusion which have for so long prevented us from understanding the natural necessity of crying.

25-B. Stop Worrying Now ! Worry is one of the most common forms of emotional distress in our culture. Almost everyone spends a considerable amount of present moments worrying about the future. And virtually all of it is for nothing. Obsessive worry will never make things any better. In fact, such worry will very likely help you to be less effective in dealing with the present.

In order to reduce worry, it is necessary to understand the subconscious psychological \"payoffs\" for choosing to worry in the first place. \"I can't do a thing. I'm too worried about...” This is a common lament, and one with a payoff that keeps you standing still and avoiding the risk of action. Clearly, it is easier, if less rewarding, to worry than to be an active, involved person.

By worrying about someone else, you can label yourself as a caring person. Worry proves that you are a good parent or spouse (\"I can’t help worrying - its because I love you.”). A handsome dividend, although lacking in logical, healthy thinking.

If you weigh too much, you may eat more when you worry; hence, you have a good reason for hanging on to the worry behavior. Similarly, you may find yourself smoking more in troublesome situations, and can use the worry to avoid giving up smoking. The same neurotic reward system also applies to health. It may be easier for you to worry about chest pains than to risk finding out the truth, and then having to deal directly with yourself.

Worry can bring a lot of diseases such as tension headaches and backaches. While these may not seem to be payoffs, they do result in considerable attention from others and justify much self-pity as well. And some people would rather be pitied than fulfilled.

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Now that you understand the psychological support system for neurotic worry, you can begin to devise some measures for reducing the number of troublesome worry bugs that breed in this erroneous zone.

Begin to view your present moments as times to live, rather than times to worry about the future. When you catch yourself worrying, ask yourself, \"What am I avoiding now by using up this moment with worry?” Then begin to attack whatever it is you're avoiding.

A friend of mine spent a week on an island off the Connecticut coast. She enjoys taking long walks, but soon discovered that there were a number of dogs on the island which were allowed to run free. She decided to fight her worry that they might attack her. She carried a rock in her hand and resolved to show no fear as the dogs came running toward her. Seeing someone who refused to back down, they turned and ran away. While I am not encouraging dangerous behavior, I do believe that a sensibly effective challenge to worry is the most productive way to minimize its role in your life.

Ask yourself over and over, \"Will the future change as a result of my worrying about it?” Try to remember how many of the things you once worried about never become real at all. Also ask yourself; \"What’s the worst thing that could happen to me (or them), and what is the likelihood of it occurring?” You'll discover the absurdity of most worries in this way.

Act in direct conflict with your usual areas of worry. If you compulsively save for the future, use some money for your own enjoyment today. Enjoy life; don't waste the present with immobilizing thoughts about the future.

These are some techniques for minimizing worry in your life. But the most effective weapon you have is your own determination to drive this neurotic behavior away from your life.

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