桥梁发展史

Bridge history

Bridge is an important part of the circuit. In history, whenever transport major changes in weight, Bridges, to put forward new requirements span, and promoted the development of the bridge engineering. In the 1920's, railway was developed, the bridge used materials is stone and wood is given priority to, cast iron and cast iron only occasionally use. In the long years, Bridges practice has accumulated rich experience, created many forms. But now, use a variety of main bridge type can almost be found in ancient origins. In the most basic three bridge type, beam pumping bridge originated in imitation of lodging in: broadleaf forest trees of the wooden bridge, and built into a wooden bridge, which evolved ShiLiang bridge, until the 19th century of truss girder, The growth of suspension bridge originated in imitation of natural across deep groove and valuable climbing cane, bamboo and built to suspension evolution of dissects Tibet, soft of self-anchored suspension Bridges, until a stiffening girder suspension bridge, Arch bridge originated in imitation of limestone cave by the formation of the \"TianShengQiao\" and built into a wooden arch bridge, evolution and cast iron arch bridge.

In a railway later, wooden bridge, stone bridge, railway and original Bridges foundation construction technology was hard to adapt to the needs. But to the 19th century centaury, due to the basic knowledge of structural mechanics spread, steel supply in large quantities, air pressure caisson application technology maturity, the railway bridge engineering rapid development. At the beginning of the 20th century, North America was in railway bridge steel span aspects even set up a new world record. To before the second world war, highway bridge steel and steel reinforced concrete bridge spans records and have exceeded the railway bridge.

After the second world war, a large number of the destruction of htac to repair, xinqiao need bridge built, and the bridge steel shortages, hence, use in 30 years accumulated about high-strength material and efficient technology (welding, prestressed tension and anchoring, high strength bolt construction craft, etc.) of experience, popularize the several new bridge ─ ─ with orthotropic steel bridge panel of steel box girder, real abdomen section prestressed concrete bridge and cable-stayed Bridges.

Since the 1960s, auto transportation soared, material supply relieved, the rapid development of science and technology, bridge engineering and improve quality, reduce cost, reduce the bridge YangHuFei aspects obtained very big improvement.

- -

1

Foreign bridge engineering development in the 1820s before (before) have railway (1) the bridge. In BC 2000 years ago, Babylon had in the Euphrates river is built on the ShiDun wooden bridge, JiMu beam at night removal, in case the enemy attack. In Rome, Geraldine Jim Caesar had for marching needs, in 55bc in on the Rhine river for building a more than 300 meters, lengji Bridges. In Switzerland luzern has kept two medieval style of wooden bridge: one is the church was built in 1333 bridge, one is in 1408 torre was founded TengTan blavatsky (Totentanz) bridge, the two bridge has bridge house, ceiling have painting. In 1756 ~ 1766, Switzerland built span is 52 ~ 73 meters of three great bridge, two is also arch, the other one is also truss arch bearing, located in use wood WeiTingGen, span 61 meters.

In Asia, wooden arch bridge appeared earlier, Japan has preserved rock kingdom city with wooden arch bridge, 5 KongJin span 27.5 m, founded in 1673 years, its pattern from China. The 18th century to the beginning of 19th century three, for forty years, that is prevalent in America built roof (protection wood) large bridge, 1815 in Pennsylvania built across SaSiKui Hannah river of maidang kaoer ferry bridge, span to 110 meters, is unprecedented.

stone bridge. The Roman era bridge, a semicircle arch ring, arch, QiFeng don't cut stele inscriptions were widely used as refined mortar. Because we cannot build deep water foundations, the span of pier width of the arch than most for 1/3 to 1/2 of blocking water area, too, therefore built across more than HeQiao already washed out. There is a Spanish territory six holes arch, name Alcantara (Alcantara) bridge, the towers are built on the rock, yet intact.

Europe in the middle ages (5 ~ 10 century) period, bridge construction was because of feudal lords and recession. In central Asia and Egypt forest is less, so stone bridge used more. The GongShi processing thicker, laying with lime mortar, The arch arc in coping often form sharp edges. This stone Bridges, simple construction in 11 ~ 12 centuries was introduced in Europe, and at the current custom, on the bridge or sets the church, shrines, gods, or set up checkpoints, bunkers, or set up shop, housing. In France, avignon 1177 ~ saladin begins into a cross ROM NeHe 20 hole arch, span of 30 meters, once famous temporarily; But fires and outfit that was BingPai damage, now only stay ashore four holes and above the small church. In Britain 1176 ~ 1209 built in crossing the river Thames in London, the old bridge pier block water has a very large area, in tidal fluctuations, bridge by scouring velocity is very high, river

- -

2

bridge, very early obvious sinking. It is London transport arteries, the reinforcement maintenance, using 600 years, until 1826 build London xinqiao when demolished. 1308 ~ 1355 years in France the cahors built watts lang Mr Little (Valentre) bridge, for six holes have long span 16.5 meter, tight and towering JianLou fortification since three tombs, standing intact.

European Renaissance in for the bridge deck ZongPo gently, eli, urban traffic arch bridge rise-span ratios are high and span of sagittal (than) reduced significantly, and arch arc curve corresponding change, stone processing and hasten is fine. In Italy, fiorentina holy terry the tower bridge was built Trinita) (Santa 1569 years, altogether 1567 ~ 3 hole, cross measures 29.3 meters, rise-span ratios are for bid, arch axis to exploit arc (arch arc radius in arch toe place less than vaults place), control two arc in vaults intersect, was set in JiaoJiao arch champions anaglyph cover, Venice LiYaEr torre Rialto) bridge was built (from 1588 to 1592, span 27.0 meters high, sagittal 6.4 meters, each bridge the crowd of alluvial soil has scored a stake in over 6,000 root. 1575 ~ 1606 built in Paris, France xinqiao altogether 12 hole, the largest span 19.4 meters, bridge housing ZhiBi, become busy streets, until 1848 ~ in 1855 rebuilt when it is removed.

In the 18th century, Europe stone at the highest level. Then the bridge by France expert as j. - r. capello inside represented. In the world's oldest universities ─ ─ Paris bridge road school for 1747 founded in, capello within any principals and teachers. His masterpieces can lift across Schwartz river saint mark's SangSi bridge as an example, a total of three holes, span all 21.8 meters, sagittal high 1.98 metres thick, pier for arch bridge piers span ratio is.7, each by two pairs of pillar form. The bridge has been destroyed in 1870 war.

In Iran, Isfahan of Pul.doppler ha long (1642 ~ Khajoo) bridge was built in 1667, bridge over the river dam located in elam, 24, pointed arch bridge is quite wide, have castles. It is desert traveler yearning resting cool LanSheng in jiadi.

3 iron arch bridge. Until smelters attracted to manufacture large use coke, this bridge casting before building. British 1779 years when cole brooke dyer (Coalbrookdale) first into a ZhuKua about 3.05 meters of cast iron rib arch bridge. The bridge had been used in 170, presently as cultural relics preservation.

4 forging iron rod suspension bridge. Early soft of self-anchored suspension Bridges self-respect small, materials of low intensity, can not stand periodic live load function

- -

3

(military to tidy pace, who had made this bridge cross the bridge damage), In the wind loads, easy to destroy. But British 18.2 ~ 1826 in plum nai strait built the span of 177 meters forging iron rod soft of self-anchored suspension Bridges (road bridge), alone can in bridge deck with bad along with the attain longevity (1940, in unchanged conditions, already will bar chain into low alloy steel eye bar).

The 1920s to appear in the early 19th century, western railway railway arch rib and cast iron mainly use arch. In will cast iron rib arch bridge, in cross for pier does not suffer arch horizontal thrust, classics in the same arch rib setup tie between the two, forming bowstring arch bridge (see combination system bridge). For example UK 1849 using this method in Newcastle completed 6 x 378,000 meters double-layer (upper for railway, bottom is road) cast iron arch bridge. The United States and Russia have more use wooden bridge, Its cross GuQiao is often adopted lengji Bridges, The large-span bridge is use wooden arch and wood truss girder. In 1840, obtained a patent for American huisman truss beam, the structure is like Russia.. Ralph was built, radha yankees st. Petersburg (now Leningrad) to Moscow railway when the design of large-span truss beam bridge the same; Its chord and cross abdomen pole use wood, vertical web members responded with a round iron, simple structure, mechanical clear and can be used as a representative of the truss beam at that time. Wrought iron and steel appear, gradually changed the face of railway Bridges. In 1485, England j. invented the steam hammers; within Smith. In 1851, England in rochester bridge construction foundation (used in pressure caissons sinking deep as vast 18.5m), and I never ended deep-water rivers cannot repair history.

(1) cast iron bridge. In 1832, Britain in Glasgow began with an i-shaped cross-section wrought iron build beam pumping bridge. This kind of bridge spans later once reached 960 meters. 1940s Britain are going to build an across the strait of large-span nanotubes mei railway bridge, cast iron arch bridge can't satisfy the navy to bridge the clearance of suspension bridge is stiffness requirements, enough. When building the railway responsible r. Stephenson think: use wrought iron profiles made a huge XiangGuan size is big enough to accommodate, railway trains passing from them, the stiffness can be greatly improved, Reoccupy stone pagoda from prop the iron suspension cable, and XiangGuan bridges.according will hanging in suspension cable under, most propbably is feasible. Because he was still not understand mechanical calculation (French cristiano - l. - m. h.

- -

4

natrium dimension - 1842 has proposed elastic beam British engineering theory, but also don't know), but by structure experiment method successfully determines XiangGuan beam section shape and details; At the same time, it also proved without suspension cable bridge will have enough rigidity. But, stone pagoda from or built. This bridge was built 1845 ~ 1850, says Britain XiangGuan bridge, 4 hole continuous, points for 70 + 140 + across 140 + 70 meters. Due to build the bridge in the process of doing experiments confirm the real abdomen beam of reliability from the late nineteenth century up in a small cross railway bridge steel girder bridge is generally adopt (this ShiGang already replaced the iron plate beams, and small cross than box girder facilitate manufacturing and erect) until the 1950s it gradually for prestressed concrete beams reinforced () is replaced.

(2) steel bridge. The 19th century 50's statically determinate steel truss girders of the analysis method of internal force gradually been engineering hands. 1867, Germany of h. GeBeiEr in haas novotel built a statically determinate cantilever truss girder beams so also calls (this kind of GeBeiEr beam). 188 ~ in 1890, British adopt bridge type, built span unprecedented (da 521.2 metres) of fox bay railway, chief 1620 meters, supporting place of truss height to amount to 110 meters. The bridge rods are bulky, structure tall, stiffness and bearing capacity can satisfy the requirements, appearance is not railway bridge arch bridge and suspension bridge. 1867 ~ 1874, the United States of America built st.louis steel arch bridge meters, ZhuKua 158 meters, both sides across each for 153 meters. Its bearing structure is without hinge truss arch, truss stem by steel round control into. The bridge's advantages in use small section rods assembles into stiffness big railway bridge. In Britain with cast iron XiangGuan bridge built Britain, America J.A. rob Lin in 1851 ~ in 1855 in the Niagara river, with parallel wrought iron wire cable build a span for 250 meters of ram iron amphibious suspension bridge, Tower with stiffening truss beam, which made of wood, In addition, still use some cables will stay cabls stiffening truss beam with tower and in forcing the anchor point abuts (with cable-stayed Bridges type structure). This bridge opening, the total weight of 368 tons of train (locomotive weight is 28 tons) dominating drove by. Later brought the stiffening girder instead of steel, iron, instead of stone pagoda from the bridge lifespan is 42 years (because of railway live load increasing and for a span of 168 meters of steel arch bridge is replaced). 1869 ~ in 1883, the United States built brooklyn bridge. It is a span of 487 meters, city of suspension bridge is still in use today. Its wind resistance, good

- -

5

performance for suspension bridge to more longspan development pioneered a precedent. At the beginning of the 20th century to the middle of structural mechanics elastic analysis method of internal force in general the statically indeterminate bearing structure of bridge design, to create a long span record has strong scientific basis.

(1) the steel bridge. This period of steel bridge: railway bridge built have Canada Quebec bridge (1918, ZhuKua 548.6 meters of cantilever truss beam), New York, USA ghosts door (Gate) make two hinge truss arch bridge (1916, ZhuKua 298 meters, 4 line overloaded railway, way of ballastless deck), Ohio plug uefa torsten Nashville, two span continuing truss girder (1917, the span 236.3 meters), Illinois mei trow's Annapolis simply-supported truss girder (1917, ZhuKua 219.5 meters), Australian Sydney harbour bridge road have (1932, span 503 meters steel truss arch, American bei forever Bayonne) steel truss arch bridge ((1931, span 503.6 meters), New York, USA George Washington suspension bridge (1931, span 1066.8 meters), the golden gate suspension bridge (1937, span 1280.2 meters). In the meantime the Soviet union in DiNieBoHe built male iron amphibious steel truss arch bridge (1930, span 224 meters, in the second world war ii destroyed, 1952, the reconstruction of the span of reinforced concrete arch bridge 228 meters); in Moscow canal built clay he base chains stem suspension bridge (1938, the span of 168 meters).

(2) reinforced concrete bridge. Around 1900 reinforced concrete bridge world attention gets gradually to be used on arch bridge and reinforced concrete beam pumping bridge arch bridge has been refreshed the span of records in the early 20 maximum sqan as 100 meters. Thereafter, are: 1930 built French prachanda Lou gus Taylor (Plougastel) bridge across each for 13 hole net 171.7 meters; 1934 built Stockholm, Sweden tulane berry (Traneberg) road span 178.4 meters; 1939 built shamhuth the railway bridge across Spain ella net 192.4 meters; In 1943 built Sweden Thornton bridge span 264 meters. And reinforced concrete bridge is real abdomen slow, span record only reach 78 meters (1939 was built in France across the Seine old veller lots walter - st George's bridge). The Soviet union in 1937 to build WoLuo darfur camp in Leningrad, base the bridge, use float shipped across the two method erection 101 meters without thrust reinforced concrete arch, beam combination system bridge.

Since the mid-twentieth century city road and bridge construction, the new bridge of widespread adoption, traditional bridge type construction method was improved to obtain the new bridge engineering achievements. Because super-large across the road cost is high, to

- -

6

raise funds in the United States have always bridge of popular charge bridge system in the capitalist world again, this is classic restaurant-favored treat built big bridge organization relative organizations and issuance of bonds, which can obtain bridge-building funds, and after completion of the bridge to bridge vehicles and pedestrians impose toll, so in the decades of bond servicing; For bonds pay off, free and can be walking over the bridge. In non-stress aspect such as British fox bay road (span 1006 meters) and the severn HeQiao (span 986.6 meters), French thangka Nashville bridge (1959, span 610 meters), a Portuguese salazar bridge (1966, span 1013 meters) are built using this method.

(1) the steel bridge. After the second world war, Germany in 1948 in cologne - doe Bates rehab, points HeQiao Rhine across 132.1 184.5 + + is 120.7 meters, driveway width, using real 11.6 meters abdominal beam take maohan and the structure, the total steel quantity for old bridge is to save steel, 61% of the first example of a (old bridge as the anchor type bar chain suspension bridge). In 1950, orthotropic steel bridge panel began in KeBuLunCi inside card HeQiao use, points across is 56 + 75 + 56 m. This bridge is lighter, and can act as real abdomen beam flange, 1951, used in Dusseldorf - noyce Rhine HeQiao, make steel girder span achieve real abdomen 206 meters; 1974 Brazil built of melon natrium barak bay bridge span 300 meters. In 1955, cable-stayed Bridges first in Sweden sandhust Aaron pine heart (Strmsund) is built, points across 75 + 182.6 + 75 meters. In 1959, federal Germany built plug WeiLin single pylon cable-stayed Bridges, its ZhuKua da 302 meters; Now of reinforced concrete cable-stayed Bridges and steel span cable-stayed Bridges already achieved respectively 440 and 404 meters. The traditional suspension bridge, steel arch bridge and cantilever truss girder, also have each long span records.

(2) prestressed concrete bridge. As early as in 1936, Germany was in Mr Eritrea by building a unbonded prestressed reinforced concrete bridge, the ZhuKua 69 meters, but did not obtain expected result. French e. FuLeiXi inner in-depth study of prestressed concrete performance and tension and, on the basis of anchorage technique in the second world war in lack of wood and steel conditions, in 1946 in lu CangXi (Luzancy) with prestressed reinforced concrete beam section will prefabricate string into overall, need not stents, only temporary tassos, built on the tumbrils - red tumbrils 55 meters long span bridge; the double hinge just In 1946 ~ 1950, and in the same way, in ace cloth interest etc to 74 meters of bridge built span five seats. The federal republic of Germany in 1950 in baal du because Balduinstein

- -

7

frank-walter steinmeier (LanHe built for ZhuKua) 62 metres of prestressed concrete bridge, use Brazil in 1930, without obtaining a fruitful cantilever irrigation open-cut method of success. In 1952 and 1964, federal Germany and use this law WoErM meadows and built this Randolph bridge, the ZhuKua achieved respectively 114.2 and 208.0 meters. 1962 ~ in 1964, France on the Seine with cantilever timbering method for building across 34.8 + ingredients 61.4 + 34.8 meters of prestressed concrete bridge and obtain compressed time limit effect. In 1979, the federal Germany in 1948 by the cologne - 1937 he HeQiao steel real abdomen Bates Rhine beside the original obligate beam passing siting place, same points across and same co-using's main dimensions continuous beam and the scheme comparison, the cost of prestressed concrete beams than beam-rolling low cost by 15%. As for prestressed concrete cable-stayed Bridges, by cantilever steel girder and the inspiration of cable-stayed Bridges, its conception in the 1950s is ripe; For other reasons, 1962 only in venezuela MaLaKaiBoHu first built, ZhuKua is 235 meters. At present, the bridge span have developed to 400 metres above sea level. Reinforced concrete arch bridge, in which the stent thrombosis construction have achieved progress.

(1) the bridge. Bridge is the earliest documented in the 13th century BC, but shall not be detailed. The water by note \"featuring spring autumn jin fair between (556 BC ~ 532 years) was in before FenShui built on the wood LiangMuZhu bridge. Qin dynasty (221 BC ~ 200 years before), previously the western han dynasty (206 B.C. xianyang ~ 24 years) previously A.D. changan (today), xian in shaanxi then built weihe bridge, BaHe bridge etc, in the water by note \"and\" three auxiliary HuangTu \"have conclusive records. These bridge repeatedly destroyed repeatedly constructs, use more wood LiangMuZhu or wood LiangShiZhu bridge type, when the span of more than wood bridge length, had used cantilever type bridge and arch bridge. According to the northern song dynasty sand state ji records, in anxi-dunhuang turpan, qiang people to have built between single span cantilever girder, called \"the river greatly\". The law is \"the yankees home for Bi, successively stone, big wood freely in times more phase repression, both sides all flat, were three zhangs. And big plate material with The Times, was very strict adorn\" hook column. So many across the bridge, it is to be in all the piers with large wooden freely coincide, each to midspan stretched out, and again in the stretch out between the connected with longitudinal, To maintain stability, which normally takes in large wooden pier platform freely built castles, with its above weight live cantilever

- -

8

fixed end, such as founded in south ZongBao idealist philosophy of six years (1258) Lu river's bridge of hunan liling.

The arch bridge, the song dynasty hongqiao tectonic strange. According to the Mian water yan talk record \"and so on books, know it was founded in SongMingDao (1032 ~ 1,033 years). In song dynasty painting \"qingming riverside seene\" painted song dynasty bianjing (today kaifeng) of hongqiao henan its bearing structure by two sets of more actual several pieces of wood hinge arch each alternate arrangement, match with crossbar, alemeth cable to plunge into. One set of many hinge wooden arch arch bone including long wooden 3 root, make trapezoid decorate; Another set of wooden arch arch bone including long wooden 2 root, short wood 2 root, make pointed vaulted layout. The wood to end each other, forming a hinged arrive tight, A set of arch bone hinge, just as in another set of arch bone long wooden midpoint above all; With Mie cable with two sets of wooden arch clip crossbar tied, hence, two sets of wooden arch is formed stable super statically determinate structure bearing structure comparison, estimate the bridge actual span about vast 18.5m and bridge crane load about 3 tons. After the northern song dynasty, this bridge type spread to zhejiang and fujian, etc. Built in qing jiaqing seven years (1802) of zhejiang yunhe mei wooden arch bridge, remains unchanged, The two sets of wooden arch decorate and song dynasty hongqiao slightly different load-bearing \"song dynasty hongqiao the crossbar is put in two sets of wooden arch bridge between, and may crossbar is buy is in each wood arch hinged points.

stone bridge. Many pleasant village village in henan 1957 unearthed han brick, bridge has two horses and chariots, and underneath the leaf of boats, proof was repaired across a river bridge. In the water by note \"of water, to jin south three years (in) 282 travelers bridge built such description:\" bridge to luoyang palace, six or seven with boulder, next round leah, can be big in the post-cooling water had also.\" Sui opened huang 15 years to cause reign (p.p.423-430 ~ 605 years), built 37.02 meters, calendar net across 1,300 years and sound zhaozhou bridge. JinMingChang three years (in) built in 1192 today Beijing southwest of lugou bridge, a total of 11 holes, span of 11.4 ~ 13.5 meters, on top of the size with lifelike stone 485 a; The 13th century in China Italian Marco Polo, the world has ever known as in travel stories are rare. Beijing Summer Palace inside the 17-arch bridge built in qianlong emperor (1736 and 1795); YuDaiQiao built in qianlong fifteen years (1750). The former arches with ease downhill from the deck Bridges in to collect small ends gradually, The latter

- -

9

with the ends for reverse bend lines of jade green plexus. Back above the vault The two bridge with harmonious environment, lake mountain brightness is famous. In the south of the Yangtze, from the tang dynasty has built many with arc SLATE and horizontal strip lock stone arch ring bridge, form shape and giant ShiLiang bridge. Arc plate arch lighter weight, the foundation, low pressure strength requirement can be used on in soft soil foundation. The arch ring inside the SLATE and locked stone in tenon chamfer thru can occur relatively small rotation to adapt to base settlement and temperature variations, In addition, on the dust can solidify the arch in the arch ring deformation occurs when the passive pressure and improve the bearing capacity of the arch. Fujian changting water dongqiao (southern built, namely when celebrating 1195 ~ 1200), jiangsu suzhou baodai bridge (founded in TangYuanHe 11 to 14 years, namely 816 ~ 819 years, in song and Ming and qing dynasties un-used rebuild, presently bridge 53 hole, the largest span six ninety-five meters) and zhejiang hangzhou succession bridge (built during chongzhen four years, namely mumtaz mahal, presently Bridges in hole net across 15.8 meters) are plate bridge. Fujian quanzhou wanan bridge also called LuoYangQiao (luoyang river), is across ShiLiang bridge, presently long 834 meters, 47 hole, built in SongJia four years (1059 years). When the first bridge along the bridge the longitudinal axis of the stroke of stone, under the surface forming a causeway on stones herding of oysters, stay Li shell and block-stone phase cementation, it can withstand waves. In this underwater causeway, with big stone freely fold buy (don't plaster), forming pier, again ShiLiang erection. In zhangzhou across LiuYing jiang tiger across, built in the southern song dynasty jia xian reign (1237 years), it used giant stone size of 1.7 x 1.9 x 23.7 meters, the weight nearly 200 tons. Though a few holes is destroyed, and in its upper co-using reinforced concrete girder bridge, but the original stone bridge shangcun has.

3 Bridges. LiuTong bridge is a kind of relatively primitive Bridges, it is wooden tube set in the suspension cable from the cylinder lop two strands of leather string and a crossbar, People rode crossbar, forcibly with the hand, make the tube cable climbing along the cable mobile, people can follow the past. Irrigation county, for song too bamboo suspension ChunHua reign (1990) founded, clear jiaqing eight years (1803) copy system reconstruction, name AnLan bridge, bridge length 340 metres, divided into 8 hole, the largest span 61 meters (bamboo cable has now been replaced by wire cable). Dadu river dissects Tibet was built of

- - 10

emperor kangxi 45 years (2002), net 1706 across 100 meters. This bridge is now as a revolutionary cultural relics preservation.

- -

11

桥梁历史

桥梁是线路的重要组成部分。在历史上，每当运输工具发生重大变化，对桥梁在载重、跨度等方面提出新的要求，便推动了桥梁工程技术的发展。在19世纪20年代铁路出现以前，造桥所用的材料是以石材和木材为主，铸铁和锻铁只是偶尔使用。在漫长岁月里，造桥的实践积累了丰富的经验，创造了多种多样的形式。但现今使用的各种主要桥式几乎都能在古代找到起源。在最基本的三种桥式中，梁式桥起源于模仿倒伏于溪沟上的树木而建成的独木桥，由此演变为木梁桥、石梁桥、直至19世纪的桁架梁桥；悬索桥起源于模仿天然生长的跨越深沟而可资攀援的藤条而建成的竹索桥，演变为铁索桥、柔式悬索桥，直至有加劲梁的悬索桥；拱桥起源于模仿石灰岩溶洞所形成的“天生桥”而建成的石拱桥，演变为木拱桥和铸铁拱桥。

在有了铁路以后，木桥、石桥、铁桥和原来的桥梁基础施工技术就难于适应需要。但到19世纪末叶，由于结构力学基本知识的传播、钢材的大量供应、气压沉箱应用技术的成熟，使铁路桥梁工程获得迅速发展。20世纪初，北美洲曾在铁路钢桥跨度方面连创世界纪录。到第二次世界大战前，公路钢桥和钢筋混凝土桥的跨度记录又都超过了铁路桥。

第二次世界大战后,大量被破坏的桥梁急待修复,新桥急需修建，而造桥钢材短缺，于是，利用30年代以来所积累的关于高强材料和高效工艺（焊接、预应力张拉及锚固、高强度螺栓施工工艺等）的经验，推广了几种新型桥──用正交异性钢桥面板的箱形截面钢实腹梁桥，预应力混凝土桥和斜张桥。

60年代以来，汽车运输猛增，材料供应缓和，科学技术迅猛发展，桥梁工程又在提高质量、降低造价、降低桥梁养护费等方面获得了很大改进。

国外桥梁工程的发展 19世纪20年代以前（有铁路之前）

①木桥。在公元前2000多年前，巴比伦曾在幼发拉底河上建石墩木梁桥,其木梁可以在夜间撤除,以防敌人偷袭。在罗马,G.J.恺撒曾因行军需要,于公元前55年在莱茵河上修建一座长达 300多米的木排架桥。在瑞士卢塞恩至今保存着两座中世纪式样的木桥：一是1333年始建的教堂桥,一是1408年始建的托滕坦茨(Totentanz)桥，这两座桥都有桥屋，顶棚有绘画。在1756～1766年，瑞士建成跨度为52～73米的三座大木桥，两座是亦拱亦桁，另一座用木拱承重，位于韦廷根，跨度61米。

在亚洲，木拱桥出现更早，日本岩国市至今保存的5孔锦带木拱桥，跨度为27.5米，始建于1673年,其图样来自中国。18世纪末至19世纪初的三、四十年间，美国盛行建有屋盖（保护木结构）的大木桥，1815年在宾夕法尼亚州建成的跨越萨斯奎汉纳河的麦考尔渡口桥，跨度达到110米，堪称空前。

- -

12

②石桥。古罗马时代的石拱桥，拱圈呈半圆形，拱石经过细凿,砌缝不用砂浆。由于不能修建深水基础,桥墩宽度对拱的跨度之比大多为1/3至1/2，阻水面积过大，因此所修建的跨河桥多已冲毁。西班牙境内有一座 6孔石拱桥,名阿尔坎塔拉(Alcantara)桥，桥墩建在岩石上，至今完好。 欧洲在中世纪（5～10世纪）时期,桥梁建设曾因封建割据而衰退。在中亚和埃及森林较少，因而石桥使用较多。其拱石加工较粗，砌筑用石灰砂浆；拱弧在顶部往往形成尖角。这种石桥容易建造，在11～12世纪被引入欧洲，并按当时习俗，在桥上或设置教堂、神龛、神像,或设关卡、碉堡,或设商店、住房。在法国阿维尼翁，1177～1187年建成一座跨越罗讷河的20孔石拱桥，跨度30米左右,曾驰名一时；但屡遭战火及冰排破坏,现今只留有靠岸的 4孔和上面的小教堂。英国在1176～1209年建成跨越泰晤士河的伦敦老桥,其桥墩阻水面积很大,在潮汐涨落时,桥下流速很高，河床受到冲刷,桥身很早就明显下沉。它是伦敦的交通要道，经加固维护，使用了600余年,直到1826年修建伦敦新桥时拆除。1308～1355年在法国卡奥尔建成瓦朗特尔(Valentre)桥,为6孔跨度16.5米,上有设防严密且高耸的箭楼3座，至今屹立无损。

欧洲在文艺复兴时期，为使桥面纵坡平缓，以利交通，城市拱桥矢跨比（矢高与跨度之比）明显降低，拱弧曲线相应改变，石料加工又趋精细。在意大利，佛罗伦萨的圣特里尼塔(Santa Trinita)桥建于 1567～1569年，共3孔，中跨29.3米，矢跨比为1:7，拱轴为多心圆弧（拱弧半径在拱趾处小于拱顶处），左右两弧在拱顶相交， 交角被镶在拱冠的浮雕掩盖； 威尼斯里亚尔托(Rialto)桥建于1588～1592年，跨度27.0米，矢高 6.4米，每座桥台下的冲积土内曾打入密布的木桩达6000根。1575～1606年法国建成的巴黎新桥，共12孔，最大跨度19.4米，桥上房屋栉比，成为闹市，直到1848～1855年改建时才被拆除。

在18世纪，欧洲石拱桥达到最高水平。这时的桥梁专家当以法国的 J.-R.佩罗内为代表。在世界上历史最悠久的高等工科学校──巴黎桥路学校于1747年创办时，佩罗内任校长和教师。他的代表作可举跨越瓦兹河的圣马克桑斯桥为例,共3孔,跨度各21.8米，矢高1.98米,墩厚对拱跨比是 1:8，桥墩各由两对石柱构成。该桥已在1870年毁于战争。

在伊朗，伊斯法罕的普勒哈久(Pul Khajoo)桥建于1642～1667年，该桥坐落在拦河大坝之上，有24个尖拱，桥身颇宽，上有楼阁。它是沙漠旅行者向往的憩凉揽胜佳地。

③铸铁拱桥。直到冶炼业使用焦炭而能生产大型铸件时，这种桥才能建造。英国1779年在科尔布鲁克代尔(Coalbrookdale)首次建成一座主跨约 30.5米的铸铁肋拱桥。该桥曾使用170年，现作为文物保存。

④锻铁链杆悬索桥。早期的柔式悬索桥自重小，材料强度低，经不起周期性活荷载的作用（军队以整齐步伐过桥，曾使这种桥遭到破坏）；在风荷载作用下，容易摧毁。但英国1820～1826年在梅奈海峡建造的跨度达177米的锻铁链杆柔式悬索桥（道路桥）,独能在桥面随坏随修的情况下获得

- -

13

长寿（1940年，在保持原貌的条件下，已将链杆换成低合金钢眼杆）。

19世纪20年代至19世纪末 在出现铁路初期，西欧的铁路桥主要使用石拱和铸铁肋拱。在将铸铁肋拱用于多跨桥时，为使桥墩不受拱的水平推力，经在同一拱肋两端之间设置系杆，形成系杆拱（见组合体系桥）。例如英国1849年用这种方法在纽卡斯尔建成 6×37.8米双层（上层为铁路，下层为道路）铸铁拱桥。美国和俄国较多地使用木桥；其跨谷桥则常采用木排架桥；过河的大跨桥则采用木拱和木桁架梁桥。1840年获得专利权的美国豪氏桁架梁，在构造上是同俄国..茹拉夫斯基在修建圣彼得堡（今列宁格勒）至莫斯科铁路时所设计的大跨桁架梁木桥一样；其弦杆和交叉腹杆用木材，竖向腹杆则用圆铁，构造简单，受力明确，可以作为当时桁架梁的代表。锻铁和钢材的出现，逐步改变了铁路桥的面貌。1845年，英国J.内史密斯发明蒸汽打桩机；1851年，英国在罗切斯特一座桥的施工中使用气压沉箱基础（下沉深度达18.5米），从此结束了深水江河不能修桥的历史。

①锻铁桥。1832年,英国在格拉斯哥开始用I形截面锻铁建造梁式桥。这种桥的跨度后来曾达到 9.6米。40年代英国要修建一座跨越梅奈海峡的大跨铁路桥，铸铁拱桥满足不了海军对桥下净空的要求，悬索桥则刚度不够。当时修建该铁路的负责人R.斯蒂芬森认为：用锻铁型材造一个巨型箱管，尺寸大到足以容纳铁路列车从其中驶过，则其刚度可以大为提高；再用石塔支住铁质悬索，并用吊杆将箱管吊在悬索之下，想必可行。因为他当时还不懂力学计算(法国C.-L.-M.-H.纳维于1842年已提出弹性梁理论，但英国工程界还不知道),乃用结构试验的方法成功地决定了箱管梁的截面形状和细节；同时，还证明了该桥不用悬索也有足够的刚度。但是，石塔还是修建了。这座桥建于1845～1850年，称不列颠箱管桥，4孔连续，分跨为70+140+140+70米。由于在兴建这座桥的过程中所做的试验证实了实腹梁的可靠性，从19世纪后期起钢板梁桥在小跨铁路桥中被普遍采用（这时钢已代替了铁，且小跨板梁比箱梁便于制造及架设），直到20世纪50年代才逐渐为钢筋（预应力）混凝土梁所代替。

②钢桥。19世纪50年代以后，静定钢桁架梁的内力分析方法逐步被工程界所掌握。1867年，德国的H.格贝尔在哈斯富特建成了一座静定悬臂桁架梁桥（这种梁因此也称格贝尔梁）。1880～1890年,英国采用该桥式,建成了跨度空前（达521.2米）的福斯湾铁路桥,总长1620米,支承处的桁架高度达110米。这座桥杆件粗大，结构高大，刚度和承载能力都可满足铁路桥要求，外观则不如拱桥和悬索桥。1867～1874年，美国建成了圣路易斯钢拱桥米，主跨158米，两边跨各为153米。其承重结构是无铰桁架拱,桁杆由钢质圆管制成。该桥的优点在能用小截面杆件拼装成刚度大的铁路桥。在英国用锻铁建成不列颠箱管桥时，美国J.A.罗布林于1851～1855年在尼亚加拉河上，用平行锻铁丝缆索建造一座跨度为250米的公铁两用悬索桥;塔用石砌，加劲桁架梁为木制；在缆索之外，还用若干斜拉索将加劲桁梁同塔顶及设在岩壁的锚固点紧连（具有斜张桥式构造）。此桥开通时,总重

- -

14

368吨的列车（机车重量为28吨）稳稳驶过。后来曾将其加劲梁改为钢制，石塔改为铁制，该桥的寿命是42年（因铁路活载不断加大而为一跨度168米的钢拱桥代替）。1869～1883年,美国建成布鲁克林桥。它是一座跨度达487米的城市悬索桥,至今仍被使用。它的抗风性能好，为悬索桥向更大跨度发展开创了先例。 20世纪初至中叶 结构力学的弹性内力分析方法普遍用于超静定承重结构的桥梁设计，为创造长跨纪录的工作取得有力的科学依据。

①钢桥。这一时期建成的钢桥：铁路桥有加拿大魁北克桥（1918年，主跨548.6米的悬臂桁架梁）,美国纽约鬼门(Hell Gate)两铰桁架拱桥（1916年，主跨298米，4线重载铁路，道碴桥面）,俄亥俄州塞欧托维尔两跨连续桁架梁桥（1917年，跨度236.3米）,伊利诺伊州梅特罗波利斯简支桁架梁桥(1917年，主跨219.5米);公路桥有澳大利亚悉尼港桥（1932年，跨度503米钢桁拱，美国贝永(Bayonne)钢桁拱桥（1931年，跨度503.6米）,美国纽约乔治·华盛顿悬索桥（1931年，跨度1066.8米），旧金山金门悬索桥（1937年，跨度1280.2米）。在此期间苏联在第聂伯河修建了公铁两用钢桁架拱桥（1930年,跨度224米，在第二次世界大战中被毁,1952年重建为跨度228米的钢筋混凝土拱桥）；在莫斯科运河上修建了克雷姆斯基铁链杆悬索桥（1938年，跨度168米）。 ②钢筋混凝土桥。1900年前后钢筋混凝土逐渐受到桥梁界重视,被用在拱桥和梁式桥中钢筋混凝土拱桥的跨度记录不断被刷新在20年代初最大跨度为100米。其后则有：1930年建成的法国普卢加斯泰勒(Plougastel)桥13孔净跨各为171.7米;1934年建成的瑞典斯德哥尔摩特兰贝里（Traneberg）公路桥跨度178.4米；1939年建成的西班牙埃斯拉铁路桥净跨 192.4米；1943年建成的瑞典桑德桥跨度 264米。而钢筋混凝土实腹梁桥则进展缓慢,跨度记录只达到78米(1939年建成的法国跨越塞纳河的老维勒讷沃-圣乔治桥)。苏联于1937年在列宁格勒修建沃洛达尔斯基桥时,用浮运法架设两跨各101米的无推力钢筋混凝土拱、梁组合体系桥。

20世纪中叶至今 公路桥和城市桥的大量兴建，新型桥的广泛采用，传统桥式施工方法的改进，使桥梁工程取得新成就。由于特大跨公路桥造价高，为筹措建桥资金，在美国一向流行的收费桥制度在资本主义世界又风行一时，这就是对待建的特大桥组织相应机构，发行债券，借以取得建桥资金，并在桥建成后向过桥车辆和行人征收过桥费，以便在几十年内对债券还本付息；待债券还清后，便可免费过桥。在悬索桥方面如英国的福斯湾公路桥(跨度1006米)和塞文河桥（跨度 986.6米），法国的唐卡维尔桥（1959年，跨度610米）,葡萄牙的萨拉查桥（1966年，跨度1013米）都是采用这种方法建成的。

①钢桥。第二次世界大战后，西德1948年在科隆—多伊茨复建莱茵河桥，分跨是132.1+184.5+120.7米,车道宽度11.6米，采用的实腹梁取铆焊并用的构造，用钢量为老桥的61％，是节约钢材的第一例（老桥为自锚式链杆悬索桥）。1950年，正交异性钢桥面板开始在科布伦茨的内卡河桥使用，分跨是56+75+56米。这种桥面较轻,且能充当实腹梁上翼缘,1951年用于杜塞尔多

- -

15

夫—诺伊斯莱茵河桥时,使钢实腹梁桥跨度达到206米；1974年巴西修建的瓜纳巴拉湾桥跨度达到300米。1955年,斜张桥首先在瑞典斯特伦松德(Strmsund)建成，分跨75+182.6+75米。1959年，联邦德国修建了塞韦林独塔斜张桥,其主跨达302米；现在的钢筋混凝土斜张桥和钢斜张桥跨度已分别达到440和404米。传统的悬索桥、钢拱桥和悬臂桁架梁桥，也各有长跨记录。

②预应力混凝土桥。早在1936年，德国曾在奥厄修建一座采用无粘结钢筋的预应力混凝土桥，主跨69米，但未取得预期成效。法国E.弗雷西内在深入研究预应力混凝土性能和张拉、 锚固工艺的基础上， 在第二次世界大战后缺乏木材和钢筋的条件下，于1946年在吕藏西(Luzancy) 用预应力钢筋将预制的混凝土梁段串连成整体，不用支架，只用临时塔索，在马恩河上建成跨度55米的双铰刚架桥；在1946～1950年，又按同样做法，在埃斯布利等地建成跨度74米的桥 5座。联邦德国于1950年在巴尔杜因施泰因(Balduinstein)的兰河修建主跨为62米的预应力混凝土桥，使用巴西在1930年未取得成效的悬臂灌筑法取得成功。在1952年及1964年，联邦德国又采用此法建成沃尔姆斯和本多夫桥，其主跨分别达到114.2及208.0米。1962～1964年，法国在塞纳河上用悬臂拼装法建成分跨为34.8+61.4+34.8米的预应力混凝土桥并取得压缩工期的效果。1979年，联邦德国要在1948年所复建的科隆—多伊茨莱茵河桥钢实腹梁旁边原预留复线桥位处,增建同样分跨和同样主要尺寸的连续梁,经方案比较,预应力混凝土梁的造价比钢梁造价低15%。至于预应力混凝土斜张桥，因受悬臂梁桥和钢斜张桥的启发，其构思在50年代已经成熟；出于其他原因，1962年才在委内瑞拉马拉开波湖上首次建成,主跨是235米。目前这种桥的跨度已发展到 400米以上。钢筋混凝土拱桥，在采用无支架施工方面也取得了进展。

①木桥。桥梁最早文献记载见于公元前13世纪，但均不详细。《水经注》记有春秋时晋国公平年间（公元前556～前532年）曾在汾水上建木梁木柱桥。秦代（公元前221～前200年）建都咸阳,西汉（公元前206～公元24年）建都长安（今陕西西安），那时所修建的渭河桥、灞河桥等，在《水经注》、《三辅黄图》中都有确凿记载。这些桥屡毁屡建，多采用木梁木柱或木梁石柱桥式，当桥的跨度大于木材长度时，曾使用悬臂梁式桥及拱桥。按南北朝宋代《沙州记》记载,在安西到吐鲁番之间,羌人曾修建单跨悬臂梁桥，称为“河厉”。其法是“两岸垒石作基陛，节节相次，大木纵横更相镇压，两边俱平，相去三丈。并大材以板横次之，施钩栏甚严饰”。如是多跨桥，则是在各桥墩上用大木纵横相叠，各向跨中伸出，再在伸出端之间用纵梁相连；为保持稳定，一般需在桥墩台纵横大木之上修建楼阁，用其重量压住悬臂的固端，如始建于南宋理宗宝陵渌江桥。

在拱式木桥中，宋代虹桥构造奇特。据《渑水燕谈录》等书，知其始建于宋明道中(1032～1033年)。在宋代名画《清明上河图》上绘有宋代汴京(今河南开封)的虹桥其承重结构实际由两套多铰木拱各若干片相间排列，配以横木，以篾索扎成。其中一套多铰木拱拱骨包括长木3根,作梯形布置；

- -

16

六年（1258年）的湖南醴

另套木拱拱骨包括长木2根，短木2根，作尖拱状布置。各木以端头彼此抵紧，形成铰接；一套拱骨的铰，恰好是在另一套拱骨长木中点之上；用蔑索将两套木拱夹着横木扎紧，于是，两套木拱就形成了稳定的超静定结构的承重结构比较，估计此桥实际跨度大约18.5米,桥上大车荷载约3吨。北宋之后，这一桥式传至浙江和福建等地。建于清嘉庆七年（1802年）的浙江云和梅漴木拱桥，至今仍保持原貌；其两套木拱的布置和宋代虹桥稍有不同的承重结宋代虹桥的横木是搁在两套木拱之间，而梅漴桥横木是置在每套木拱的铰接点处。

②石桥。在河南新野安乐寨村1957年出土的东汉画像砖，桥上有车马,桥下有两叶扁舟,证明当时已经修造跨河石拱桥。在《水经注》

水条,对晋太康三年（282年）所建成的旅人桥有这样的描

述:“桥去洛阳宫六七里，悉用大石,下圆以通水，可受大舫过也。”隋开皇十五年至大业元年（595～605年）,建成净跨37.02米、历1300多年而无恙的赵州桥。金明昌三年（1192年）建成位于今北京西南的卢沟桥，共11孔，跨度11.4～13.5米，桥栏上配有栩栩如生的大小石狮485个;13世纪来华的意大利人马可·波罗，在游记中誉为世所罕见。北京颐和园内的十七孔桥建于清乾隆年间（1736～1795年）；玉带桥建于乾隆十五年(1750年)。前者的拱洞随桥面缓和的上下坡从桥中向两端逐渐收小；后者则以两端有反弯曲线的玉石穹背高出绿丛。这两座桥都以同环境协调，使湖山增辉见称。在长江以南，从唐代以来曾修建不少以弧形板石及横向长条锁石结成拱圈的石拱桥，以及巨形石梁桥。弧板石拱桥自重较轻，对地基承压强度要求较低，能在软土地基上采用。拱圈内的板石和锁石在榫槽相接处能发生小量相对转动以适应基础沉降和温度变化；此外，拱上夯实的灰土能在拱圈变形时发生被动压力，提高拱的承载能力。福建长汀水东桥(南宋庆元时修建,即1195～1200年）、江苏苏州宝带桥（始建于唐元和十一至十四年，即816～819年，在宋、明、清各代几度重修，现桥53孔，最大跨度6.95米）和浙江杭州拱宸桥（始建于明崇祯四年，即1631年，现桥中孔净跨15.8米）都是板石拱桥。福建泉州万安桥也称洛阳桥（跨越洛阳江），是石梁桥,现长834米，47孔，建于宋嘉

四年（1059年）。在建桥时先顺着桥的纵轴抛投大量块石，在水面下形成一条长堤,

在石块上放养牡蛎，待蛎壳和块石相胶结,它就耐得住风浪。在这水下长堤上,用大条石纵横叠置(不用灰浆），形成桥墩，再架设石梁。福建漳州跨越柳营江的虎渡桥，建于南宋嘉熙元年（1237年），其所用的巨型条石尺寸达1.7×1.9×23.7米,重量将近200吨。虽有几孔遭到破坏，并在其上方增建钢筋混凝土梁桥，但桥下尚存有原条石。

③索桥。溜筒桥是一种比较原始的索桥，它是以木筒套在悬索上，从筒垂下两股皮绳及一横木；人骑横木，以手用力攀索，使筒沿缆索移动，人就能跟着过去。灌县竹索桥,为宋太宗淳化元年（990年）所始建，清嘉庆八年（1803年）仿旧制重建，名安澜桥，桥长340米,分为8孔,最大跨度61米（竹索现已被换为钢丝索）。大渡河铁索桥建于清康熙四十五年(1706年),净跨100米。

- - 17

此桥现作为革命文物保存。

- -

18